Comparative Venomics of the Cryptic Cone Snail Species Virroconus ebraeus and Virroconus judaeus.

The venom duct transcriptomes and proteomes of the cryptic cone snail species Virroconus ebraeus and Virroconus judaeus were obtained and compared. The most abundant and shared conotoxin precursor superfamilies in both species were M, O1, and O2. Additionally, three new putative conotoxin precursor superfamilies (Virro01-03) with cysteine pattern types VI/VII and XVI were identified. The most expressed conotoxin precursor superfamilies were SF-mi2 and M in V. ebraeus, and Cerm03 and M in V. judaeus. Up to 16 conotoxin precursor superfamilies and hormones were differentially expressed between both species, and clustered into two distinct sets, which could represent adaptations of each species to different diets. Finally, we predicted, with machine learning algorithms, the 3D structure model of selected venom proteins including the differentially expressed Cerm03 and SF-mi2, an insulin type 3, a Gastridium geographus GVIA-like conotoxin, and an ortholog to the Pionoconus magus ω-conotoxin MVIIA (Ziconotide).

Chromosome-level genome of the venomous snail Kalloconus canariensis: a valuable model for venomics and comparative genomics.

BACKGROUND: Genomes are powerful resources to understand the evolutionary mechanisms underpinning the origin and diversification of the venoms of cone snails (Conidae: Caenogastropoda) and could aid in the development of novel drugs. FINDINGS: Here, we used PacBio continuous long reads and Omni-C data to assemble the chromosome-level genome of Kalloconus canariensis, a vermivorous cone endemic to the Canary Islands. The final genome size was 2.87 Gb, with a N50 of 79.75 Mb and 91% of the reads located into the 35 largest scaffolds. Up to 55.80% of the genome was annotated as repetitive regions, being class I of transposable elements (16.65%) predominant. The annotation estimated 34,287 gene models. Comparative analysis of this genome with the 2 cone snail genomes released to date (Dendroconus betulinus and Lautoconus ventricosus) revealed similar genome sizes and organization, although chromosome sizes tended to be shorter in K. canariensis. Phylogenetic relationships within subclass Caenogastropoda were recovered with strong statistical support. The family Conidae was recovered as a clade, with K. canariensis plus L. ventricosus sister to D. betulinus. CONCLUSIONS: Despite the great diversity of cone snails (>900 species) and their venoms (hundreds of peptides per species), only 2 recently reported genomes are available for the group. The high-quality chromosome-level assembly of K. canariensis will be a valuable reference for studying the origin and evolution of conotoxin genes as well as whole-genome duplication events during gastropod evolution.

The genome of the venomous snail Lautoconus ventricosus sheds light on the origin of conotoxin diversity.

BACKGROUND: Venoms are deadly weapons to subdue prey or deter predators that have evolved independently in many animal lineages. The genomes of venomous animals are essential to understand the evolutionary mechanisms involved in the origin and diversification of venoms. RESULTS: Here, we report the chromosome-level genome of the venomous Mediterranean cone snail, Lautoconus ventricosus (Caenogastropoda: Conidae). The total size of the assembly is 3.59 Gb; it has high contiguity (N50 = 93.53 Mb) and 86.6 Mb of the genome assembled into the 35 largest scaffolds or pseudochromosomes. On the basis of venom gland transcriptomes, we annotated 262 complete genes encoding conotoxin precursors, hormones, and other venom-related proteins. These genes were scattered in the different pseudochromosomes and located within repetitive regions. The genes encoding conotoxin precursors were normally structured into 3 exons, which did not necessarily coincide with the 3 structural domains of the corresponding proteins. Additionally, we found evidence in the L. ventricosus genome for a past whole-genome duplication event by means of conserved gene synteny with the Pomacea canaliculata genome, the only one available at the chromosome level within Caenogastropoda. The whole-genome duplication event was further confirmed by the presence of a duplicated hox gene cluster. Key genes for gastropod biology including those encoding proteins related to development, shell formation, and sex were located in the genome. CONCLUSIONS: The new high-quality L. ventricosus genome should become a reference for assembling and analyzing new gastropod genomes and will contribute to future evolutionary genomic studies among venomous animals.

Correction to: Historical biogeography reveals new independent evolutionary lineages in the Pantosteus plebeius-nebuliferus speciesgroup (Actinopterygii: Catostomidae).

Following publication of the original article.

Historical biogeography reveals new independent evolutionary lineages in the Pantosteus plebeius-nebuliferus species-group (Actinopterygii: Catostomidae).

BACKGROUND: The Pantosteus plebeius-nebuliferus species-group is a group of freshwater fishes distributed in endo- and exorheic drainage basins in the Mexican Sierra Madre Occidental mountain range system and central North Mexico. The geological history of this region is considered an important factor in explaining the evolutionary history of low vagility animals like freshwaters fishes. The aim of this study was to examine the phylogenetic relationships and describe the evolutionary history of the species-group. We hypothesized that the genetic structure and distribution of the main clades of Pantosteus plebeius-nebuliferus are associated with the geological history of Northern Mexico. To this end, we obtained DNA sequences of mitochondrial and nuclear genes and performed phylogenetic and phylogeographic analyses. Divergence time estimation and ancestral area reconstruction were also carried out to propose a biogeographical hypothesis, and species boundaries within the species-group were also tested. RESULTS: We identified four clades within the Pantosteus plebeius-nebuliferus species-group in both markers. Divergence ranged from 5.9% to 9.2% for cytb and 0.1% to 0.9% for GHI. We observed significant genetic structure and no shared haplotypes between clades. We estimated that the clades diverged during the last 5.1 Myr, with a biogeographic scenario suggesting eight vicariant and four dispersal events through the historic range of the species-group. We found that the best species-delimitation model is when four species are assumed, which correspond to the main clades. We identified nine evolutionary significance units (ESUs), pertinent to the conservation of the group, each representing populations present in distinct drainage basins. CONCLUSIONS: The evolutionary history of the Pantosteus plebeius-nebuliferus species-group is characterized by vicariant post-dispersal processes, linked to geological changes in the Sierra Madre Occidental and central Northern Mexico since the Pliocene. This is congruent with biogeographic patterns described for other co-distributed fish species. We propose a new phylogenetic hypothesis for the species-group, clarifying the taxonomy of this evolutionarily complex group. Our results suggest that the species-group consists of at least four clades with independent evolutionary histories, two of which may represent new undescribed species. Our identification of ESUs provides a basis upon which conservation measures can be developed for the species-group.